From Hebrew to Jew: The Evolution of Israel’s Designated Identity

By Dr. Lindsay Ann Nickens

Let’s see if you can pass this three-question quiz:

1. Was Moses Jewish or Hebrew?
2. Was Josiah an Israelite or a Judean?
3. Was Jesus an Israelite or Jewish?

For many, these questions might seem as confusing as asking, “Which is a fruit: strawberries or apples?” Are they not both considered fruits? Are these not impossible questions to answer?

There are distinct differences between the terms Hebrew, Israelite, Judean, and Jewish that can sometimes seem puzzling. They all seem to reference the same group of people. Let’s break down these terms a little more and define them so that we can see the differences.

A Hebrew individual was a member of Abraham’s extended family. The Egyptians enslaved these people in the last part of Genesis and the first part of Exodus. The term “Hebrew” refers to a heritage of people who can trace their lineage back to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

After the Lord (Yahweh) rescued the Hebrews from Egypt in the Exodus event, he formally declared the people a nation called Israel. This was after the name Yahweh gave Jacob. He established a covenant with this newly formed nation, positioning himself as their sovereign ruler. Thus, the term Israelite refers to nationality and encompasses the historically Hebrew people, as well as individuals from other tribes and families who joined the Hebrews during their exodus from Egypt and throughout Israelite history.

The Israelites settled in Canaanite territory, which was the land God had promised them, and entered a period of leadership under several warrior-like governing heads known as judges. After the judges, two kings were appointed: Saul, then David. David’s son Solomon rose to power after him, and, upon Solomon’s death, Rehoboam became king. However, Rehoboam was a cruel king, so ten of the tribes of Israel aligned with Solomon’s previous superintendent, Jeroboam, and made him king. Rehoboam’s territory thus became the nation of Judah, while Jeroboam’s nation was called Israel. Those in the nation of Israel continued to be called Israelites, while those in Judah were referred to as Judahites.

After many years of rebellion against the Lord, Yahweh handed Israel over to the domineering nation of Assyria. The Assyrians ransacked Israel’s capital, Samaria, and brought most of the Israelites to Assyria. These people are almost entirely lost and were never heard from again. Some Assyrians went to Samaria to settle there and intermarried with the few Israelites who remained in the area. We know their descendants as Samaritans. Thus, the Israelites no longer existed after the Assyrian attack.

Concerning the Judahites, the Lord would later hand them over to the Babylonians. Eventually, these people were allowed to return to Judah and later became known as Judeans to the Greeks and Romans, who took over much of the Middle East and Europe during the time of Alexander the Great. Eventually, the term “Jew,” referring to ethnicity, was derived from the term “Judean,” a term of nationality. In this way, an individual could be ethnically Jewish without being nationally Judean if they lived outside of Judea.

Hebrew

The term Hebrew has somewhat uncertain origins. It appears to derive from the Hebrew root עבר (‘abar) meaning “to cross over” or “to pass through.” This interpretation makes biblical sense, considering that Abraham’s father, Terah, crossed over from his homeland in Ur to the land of Canaan, which the Lord had promised to give to Abraham’s offspring as an inheritance. However, while there is no Scriptural connection between the two words, and Abraham’s “crossing” into Canaan never includes the term עבר (‘abar), he is the first individual who is called a “Hebrew” in the Old Testament in Genesis 14:13. It is noteworthy that this chapter is not told through Abram’s eyes but rather from the perspective of an outsider looking at Abram’s place within the surrounding Canaanite territories and kings, many of which are listed in Genesis 14. 

Since the Old Testament provides no conclusive evidence surrounding Hebrew’s derivation, there is an ongoing debate among scholars about the origin and meaning of the term. Some argue that it does not refer to a single ethnic group but rather to nomadic peoples of a particular social status, regardless of ethnicity. This debate gained momentum after the discovery of the Amarna Letters in the late 19th century. These letters, found in Egypt and dating back to the 14th century BC, were mostly diplomatic documents written in Akkadian—a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew.

Among these letters was mention of a group called the Habiru, or ‘Apiru, nomadic people often employed as mercenaries or raiders. The Habiru originated from various regions, but many of them lived in the Canaanite area, located north of Egypt. Given their lower social status, their location, and the phonetic similarity between Habiru and Hebrew, many scholars concluded that the Old Testament Hebrews might have been part of this broader Habiru group. Thus, Abraham’s designation as a Hebrew from the regions of Canaan and Mesopotamia aligns well with the descriptions of the Habiru found in the Amarna Letters.

This also helps explain passages like 1 Samuel 13 and 14, where the “Hebrews” appear to be part of, yet distinct from, the Israelites. Furthermore, the group often known as the Hebrews is named as such by those who are not considered Hebrews. For example, Exodus 1 and 2 are told with a distinctly Egyptian lens, and the Egyptians consistently refer to the descendants of Jacob as Hebrews. When Yahweh tells Moses what to say to Pharaoh, he often tells Moses to speak to Pharaoh that “The God of the Hebrews…” desires for him to let God’s people go (Exod 3:18; 5:3; 7:16; 9:1, 13; 10:3). Interestingly, the only time Moses refers to the descendants of Abraham as “Hebrews” is when he is living as an Egyptian before running away to Midian.    

Israelite

After the Hebrews left Egypt and crossed the Red Sea (historically the Reed Sea), God established a covenant with this group, whom he had just delivered from Pharaoh’s oppression. This covenant was not with a single family but with a newly formed nation. Yahweh gave this nation a new name, which traced back to their forefather Jacob, who was renamed Israel in Genesis 32. The name Israel comes from a Hebrew term meaning “to strive,” and it roughly means “he strives with God.”

This name is significant because it characterizes the nation’s relationship with Yahweh throughout its history. The people of Israel were often depicted as striving with God. They struggled, wrestled with Him, and sometimes turned to other gods in an attempt to gain favor with surrounding nations, hoping for prosperity and security. However, true security and peace were meant to come from Yahweh, whom they were supposed to strive with, not against.

Thus, the nation of Israel became known as those who strive with Yahweh. The name Yahweh means “I am who I am” and reflects God’s steadfast presence and generosity toward His people. Therefore, while Israel’s name denotes their characteristic struggle, God’s name, Yahweh, emphasizes His patient and enduring “withness” alongside them. In other words, Israel is defined by their struggle, whereas Yahweh is defined by His patience and presence with the ones who struggle. 

The nation of Israel retained this identity throughout the period of the judges and into the reign of Saul, the first official king. After Saul’s demise, David became king, and his son Solomon succeeded him after his death. Solomon’s son Rehoboam sought to surpass his father’s achievements but believed this could be done by further oppressing the Israelites. Because of Rehoboam’s oppressive rule, the Israelites suffered under his reign and eventually rebelled against his authority. 

Meanwhile, a former Israelite superintendent, named Jeroboam, arrived from Egypt. Jeroboam had fled to Egypt during the reign of Solomon when he had rebelled against Solomon’s authority and attempted a coup d’état. This occurred, however, because the Lord had spoken through the prophet Ahijah to Jeroboam, telling him that one day Jeroboam would reign over ten of the tribes of Israel (1 Kings 11:29–39). Thus, upon Jeroboam’s arrival in Israel from Egypt, God’s plan was set into action, and Jeroboam became the king. All the tribes, except Judah and Benjamin, followed Jeroboam and formed the northern kingdom, which retained the name Israel. The southern kingdom, primarily composed of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, remained loyal to Rehoboam and became known as the Kingdom of Judah.

Thus, during this time, the nation of Israel was split into two: the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah.

Judahite

The northern kingdom of Israel had a series of kings who quickly turned away from Yahweh. They worshiped other gods and sought favor from foreign nations. One such dominant power was Assyria, with whom Israel had already sought an alliance (2 Kings 16). Because of Israel’s desire to curry favor with Assyria, the Lord allowed Assyria to conquer them (2 Kings 17). Over time, several Assyrian kings attacked Israel, including Tiglath-Pileser, Shalmaneser V, and Sargon II, and in 722 BC, Assyrian king Sargon II captured the capital, Samaria, leading to Israel’s final and total destruction. 

The Assyrians deported most of the Israelites, leaving behind only some of the poorest to maintain the land and its agriculture. These ten tribes were effectively lost to history and are often referred to as the “Lost Tribes of Israel.”

Meanwhile, the southern kingdom of Judah continued until the 500s BC. The kings of Judah, facing the rising power of Babylon after it conquered Assyria, also tried to win favor with this new empire. However, the people of Judah had fallen into idolatry, worshipping gods like Marduk and even sacrificing their children to Babylonian deities.

Because of their unfaithfulness, God allowed Babylon to overthrow Judah. In 586 BC, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, sacked Jerusalem, destroyed the temple, and took many of the people into exile in Babylon. During this period, the people of Judah became known as Judahites rather than Israelites, reflecting their status as members of the separate kingdom of Judah.

Eventually, the Persian Empire conquered the Babylonian Empire. King Cyrus of Persia was not interested in holding the Judahites as slaves or vassals; instead, he allowed them to return to their homeland over several decades. Once reestablished, they began rebuilding the city walls and the temple in Jerusalem, as recorded in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Though the Old Testament ends with Judah’s restoration and the temple’s rebuilding, this was not the final chapter for the people of Judah. Soon, the Greeks would dominate the ancient Near East and take control of Judah, though they allowed the Judahites to remain in place. This was a tense period in Judah’s history, as documented in several intertestamental works, such as 1 and 2 Maccabees. 

Judean and Jew

A new dominant power emerged in the form of the Roman Empire. It was influenced by the Greek culture that Alexander the Great had propagated throughout Europe and the ancient Near East, but it retained its own distinct national character. By this time, Greek had become the common language across the Mediterranean and Near East. It was used in trade, politics, and daily conversation between peoples of different nations. Due to this Greco-Roman influence, Judah came to be known as Judea around the 2nd century BC, a name it retained throughout the New Testament period. The people living there became known as Judeans. Eventually, the term Judea was Latinized and later evolved into the French term that shortened “Judean” into “Jew.